DNA Testing Companies: An Introduction

Consumer DNA testing — for genealogy, for health reasons, or just for curiosity — is becoming increasingly popular.  However, with the increasing popularity come an increasing number of questions.  Which testing company should you use?  Can you trust them to be accurate?  How much do they cost?  Once you do test, what do you do with the results?

I’ve been at this for a while and have DNA either tested or imported at all the major sites, so I’m going to answer some general questions and address some general myths I see come up regularly, and then I’m going to give an overview of each of the major consumer DNA test companies with what I see as the pros and cons of each.  (Kind of mini-reviews.)  In an upcoming post, I’ll talk about some other things you can do with your DNA once you’ve been tested.

[Disclaimer: The prices in this post are current “regular” prices as of this writing, and are included to help you compare companies.  Neither I nor the companies mentioned can guarantee that these prices will be current whenever you purchase.]

Pre-Testing Questions

To start, let’s talk about the biggest question most people probably have before they test (that isn’t site-specific): is it accurate?  The answer is, it depends.  Matches (at least within a certain range) are very reliable.  Ethnicity estimates are educated guesses.  Let me explain.

You share 50% of your DNA with each biological parent.  You share roughly 25% with each of your grandparents, roughly 12.5% with each great-grandparent, etc.  You also share significant amounts of DNA with other close (and close-ish) relatives, such as siblings, aunts & uncles, nieces & nephews, first cousins, second cousins, etc.  If a DNA testing site says you match someone, you match them (although in some cases, the possible exact relationship might vary).

The exception is distant relative matches, who only share very small amounts of DNA with you, which could be due to actual inheritance or just chance.  But you can’t share the larger amounts of DNA that equate to closer-relative matches merely by chance.  The probabilities are just so astronomically small as to be impossible.

While we’re on the subject, though, let me point something else out.  The “relationship” listed on most sites is not an actual relationship but a range.  They usually group matches into categories like immediate family, close family, first cousin, second cousin, etc.  A “first cousin” might not be a cousin at all, but might be an aunt or uncle, for instance.  The site is not making a false claim; you simply have to understand how to read the results.

This knowledge of how to read the results is what leads to the common confusion about ethnicity.  Ethnicity estimates are just that: estimates.  More than that, though, they don’t work the way most people think.  They can’t really tell you, for instance, that 10% of your DNA is Irish (or German or Sub-Saharan African or…).  What they do is compile “reference groups” of people whose ancestry is all one single ethnicity, and then compare yours against those reference groups to see how closely it matches each one.  The results can only be as accurate as the reference groups (and each site’s categories and reference groups vary, so the results will necessarily vary from one site to another).

Post-Testing Questions

After you test, as you look at a list of matches, you’ll probably have additional questions.  The most common questions I see are about segments and centimorgans (cM).

Centimorgans are “length” measurements for DNA.  Think of as a little like if you stretched your DNA out and measured it in inches.  The more “inches” you have in common with someone else, the higher the match.  Likewise, higher cM means a closer familial match.  After parents and full siblings, though, there begin to be “options” and you may have to make some educated guesses.  The Shared cM tool at DNA Painter is an excellent tool for showing what your relationship to someone might be, based on how many cM you share.

All the major testing sites will tell you how many cM you have in common with a given match.  Most will also tell you how many “segments” you share, and that can confuse people.  A segment does not have a designated size; it is merely a “piece” of DNA.  Think of your full DNA as a strand of dry spaghetti.  As long as it’s intact, it’s one segment.  Snap it in two and it’s now two segments.  Snap these again and there are now four segments — but it’s all the same amount of DNA altogether.  Most of the time, the number of segments are not going to tell you anything significant  unless you’re looking at a more complex genealogical puzzle.

“Chromosome browsers” are tools that will let you visualize these segments by showing them as colored bars.

Ancestry

Ancestry might be the most well-known DNA test for genealogy and ethnicity.  This test uses a spit tube method of collection.  (You spit into a vial.)  If you follow the instructions carefully you shouldn’t have any trouble with it, but occasionally a sample will contain inadequate DNA and you’ll need to retest.  Last I checked, Ancestry would send new test kits in this instance as many times as necessary until you get a good sample.  (I’ve never heard of it taking more than three, and that’s pretty uncommon.)

[Although it’s a bit dated, I have a full review of Ancestry elsewhere.  Most of the information should still be fairly accurate.]

It’s easy to send an Ancestry kit as a gift, and if your recipient doesn’t want to deal with his own results, he can give you access as a “manager” so you can view his results from your account.

Based on what I know of my own genealogy, my ethnicity estimate at Ancestry seems to be pretty accurate (although, in my opinion, it was more accurate before the most recent update).

If genealogy is your primary intent, Ancestry is typically my top recommendation.  The interface for exploring and working with matches is much more user-friendly, in my opinion, than the other sites.  Also, if you have an Ancestry account, you can use the regular genealogy research tools in tandem with the DNA results.  None of the other sites integrate family trees as effectively.

Ancestry also seems to have the largest American user base, so you’re likely to find more matches, overall, on Ancestry than anywhere else.

As with all the other major sites, you can download your raw data to upload elsewhere; however, test results from elsewhere cannot be imported into Ancestry.  One down side to note is that Ancestry is the only major site to not have a chromosome browser (that tool that lets you see the shared DNA of a match with yourself in a visual format).

As of this writing, an Ancestry test costs $99 at regular price, with fairly frequent sales.  (Right now, through 4/25, it’s $69 for DNA Day.)

PROS: ease of use, reasonably accurate ethnicity estimate, large user pool for matching, accurate ethnicity estimates
CONS: no chromosome browser

23andMe

23andMe is probably the testing company you’re most familiar with if you’re interested in testing for health.  This site also uses a spit tube for collection.  They are, however, fussy about retesting.  They’ll send a second test kit, but if the second sample still fails, the option you’re given is to get a refund — upon your agreement that you’ll never make another attempt to test that individual with them.  This can be very frustrating, given that it isn’t unheard-of to need a third sample (particularly for elderly individuals).

23andMe’s ethnicity estimates are quite detailed and, from my experience, pretty accurate.

Unfortunately, their “matches” section is not very user-friendly.  There is a lot of information there; it just isn’t very easy to use.  The site does have a chromosome browser (although it’s somewhat hidden); it does not include family trees.

23andMe has two different test options.  For (at this writing) $99 you can get an “Ancestry-only” test or for (at this writing) $199 you can get an Ancestry+Health option.  The raw data for both is the same; the included reports are different.  In my opinion, the health reports are mostly useless.  (I don’t think this is the site’s fault.  I think this is a regulatory issue, with the FDA barring them from providing more useful reports.  Still, I don’t personally consider it worth the extra money.)

If you’re looking to upload your raw data to other sites, 23andMe is your best option, because it’s compatible with a wider range of sites.  Some even have a one-click-type option, where you can connect to your 23andMe account and not even have to upload the file yourself.  Like Ancestry, you cannot upload to 23andMe, though, from outside sites.

PROS: slightly better for health information, wide compatibility for raw data uploads to outside sites, accurate ethnicity estimates
CONS: no family trees, won’t repeat failed tests

FamilyTreeDNA (aka ftDNA)

FamilyTreeDNA, sometimes referred to as ftDNA for short, is a quiet staple.  This non-flashy site exists purely for genealogy.  In fact, all portions of the DNA considered irrelevant for genealogy are stripped out and not present in the raw DNA.  (That makes this site less useful if you hope to upload elsewhere.)  It has some unique benefits, though.

ftDNA is highly security-conscious (they don’t sell data for research like some of the other sites do), so if you’re very concerned about the security of your data, this is the way to go.

Family trees are a fairly minor part of the site and, honestly, kind of difficult and glitchy to work with.  However, they have an interesting feature: you can link any DNA match to your tree (assuming you know how they’re connected).  If that match is your uncle’s granddaughter, you can plug her into your tree and the site will know the exact relationship.  Even Ancestry, with its extensive tree capabilities, doesn’t allow this.

FamilyTreeDNA’s chromosome browser is the best of the bunch.  The site offers ethnicity estimates, but they’re somewhat mediocre and don’t seem to be a particular selling point for this site.

Unfortunately, there’s more of a learning curve when it comes to the user interface, and I’ve found ftDNA matches overall to be much less responsive.  The user base tends to be different, though, so you might have an entirely different group of matches here than on another site.  ftDNA does allow the importation of raw DNA from other testing sites, which is a major plus.

Another notable benefit in some situations is that FamilyTreeDNA uses cheek swabs for collection, rather than a spit tube.  I’ve found that elderly family members are often more comfortable with this.

FamilyTreeDNA also offers some options other sites do not.  What most consumer DNA tests offer is “autosomal” DNA testing.  ftDNA has that, and that’s what I’ve been describing.  However, they also have two other options available, yDNA testing and mtDNA testing.  These are more “advanced” options, designed to test specifically male (yDNA) or female (mtDNA) lines.  The average user won’t need these, but if you do, this is the site where you’ll find them.

As of this writing, Family Finder (autosomal) testing is $79 at regular price, yDNA testing is $169-$649, and mtDNA testing is $199.  Family Finder tests go on sale fairly regularly, with the other two tests going on sale periodically (often for Mothers Day, Fathers Day, and DNA Day).  (All three are currently on sale through 4/25.) 

PROS: cheek swab, security, ability to link relatives, yDNA & mtDNA options, can import
CONS: not ideal for exporting, clunky family trees, limited user base with poor responsiveness

MyHeritage

MyHeritage is the new kid on the block when it comes to “big name” consumer DNA testing.  It’s well known because the site itself has been around for a long time, with capabilities similar to Ancestry’s for doing non-DNA genealogy research, even though the DNA element is new.

Like FamilyTreeDNA, MyHeritage uses cheek swabs.  (In fact, I’m told the two sites use the same test kit.)

I find the entire site clunky and nothing about the DNA offerings particularly outstanding.  You have to have a paid ongoing subscription in order to to much with it.  MyHeritage does have one significant benefit, though, and that is that it seems to have a much higher European user base than the other sites.  So if you’re trying to locate ancestors who did not immigrate to America, you might have more success finding matches here.  (My own ancestry is 100% European, so that is, unfortunately, all I can speak to.  If your ancestors are mostly from Asia or Africa, for instance, I don’t know what kind of representation they have on the various sites.)

MyHeritage also allows data imports, so unless your relatives are almost entirely in Europe and you’re using the site primarily for research, I would consider this most useful as a secondary source of matches.  (That is, test somewhere else and upload your raw data to MyHeritage.)

I imagine the algorithms will improve over time but, as it stands, the ethnicity estimates at this site seem to be terrible.  Mine seem to be missing entire major regions, and I’ve heard a lot of “complaints” from others, as well.  If curiosity about your ethnic makeup is your primary goal, this is not the site for you.

PROS: large non-American user base relative to other sites, cheek swab, can import
CONS: inaccurate ethnicity estimates, minimal capability without a paid subscription

Others:

There are other tests making their way to the market but, by and large, there’s a reason the previous four are the most familiar.  Some tests are intended for such specialized purposes that — although their reports might be very useful for the right consumer base — they aren’t widely useful.  Others are just questionable.

I was provided with a free test kit to try out GPS Origins, from the company now known as HomeDNA.  The minimal test kit comes with a pamphlet, the envelope for the return of the swabs, and a packet of cheek swabs.  The claim is that this site can tell you more about your ancient ancestors’ migration than the more mainstream tests.  I’m skeptical of the trustworthiness of this information (whether we truly have the necessary background to arrive at that type of conclusion), as are many researchers.  At least at this point, I consider this more a novelty than anything else.

However, the site does provide your raw data, so it isn’t completely pointless.  The cost as of this writing is $199.

LivingDNA is beginning to pick up steam.  At a (current) regular price of $99, this cheek swab-based test promises to unfold your family ancestry, as well as your “motherline” and “fatherline.”  (“Fatherline” only available for males, because that’s just how DNA works.)  It’s a little unclear from the website, but this doesn’t seem to be full yDNA and mtDNA data, but the high-level information, or what is known as the maternal and paternal “haplogroups.”

This does not seem to be a US-based company, and they consequently appear to have done a better job than most of being less Euro-centric.  The results produced are presented in a truly beautiful format, and you can download them as a printable PDF.  In fact, for an added fee, you can order the results as a print book.

Currently, the site does not do matching; as I understand it, this is due to its still-small user base.  I haven’t used this site directly for testing, but they are accepting imports (at least for now), and I’ve imported my DNA.  As I understand it, they are encouraging imports for testers from other sites in order to build the user base in hopes of later offering matching.  (Note that, unlike most sites, which ask that you upload the still-zipped ZIP file, LivingDNA requires that you unzip the raw data file and upload the contents.)

From what I’ve seen of the site, so far, when they have built to a sufficient point, this site could give the others a run for their money.